RT 1206-1226

Mikhail Bakhtin 1895-1975
Throughout this reading I found a few particular things to be the most interesting about Mikhail's view on speech and discussion. He defines speech and  discussion between a speaker and addressee as an act involving both parties inevitably. He says, "even if a word is not entirely his , constituting, as it were the border zone between herself and his addressee - still it does in part belong to him". This quote implies that a conversation does not belong to one part or the other, it is an extension of the relationship between two speakers and as Mikhail says, it is an "intentional negotiation of meaning and interpretation between author and reader". By having a discussion each party is adjusting the atmosphere of definitions and meanings they bring to the conversation with the words that they speak between them. In this way a conversation, even one that is one sided, takes input from both the author and addressee. This is reminiscent of the dialectic style the greeks used.
Verbal interaction is the basis and fundamental start of dialogue and language, where the interpretations differ based on the individual nuances and changes in individual's perceptions of meaning and intent - "emphasizes polyphony of language seen this way , the heteroglossia of speech and texts that are subject to multiple interpretations". Mikhail discusses how rhetorics changes have led to uses more widely than before, it had become be used for creative writing and personal writing more, as well as the application of sciences (such as psychology) to writing and the rhetorical principles of argument. One last interesting quote talking about peasant type people, who each individually suffering from hunger and poverty, and the way this structuring of oopressionprevented uprising and group collective to fight back, "Such a collective lacks the unitary material frame necessary for united action. Resigned but unashamed and undermining apprehension of one's own hunger will be the rule under such conditions - "everyone bears it, you must bear it, too." Here grounds are furnished for development of the philosophical and religious systems of the non resistor or fatalist type" (p1217).

ARCS Ch 12; RT 1031-1044, 1061-1085

Delivery and Memory: Attending to Eyes and Ears
The importance of speaking has changed from the ancient times with Cicero and other rhetors. This is made clear through the shift in reliance on memory to written "memories", and wider audiences. these changes led to the focus of importance to written rhetoric from oral.
I think it is interesting to note this quote from pg 327,  "orators act in real life, whereas actors mimic reality (De Oratore III lvi 214-15)." This is one specificity defining oral rhetors in the time, emphasizing the importance of delivery - their personalized and stylized performance of speech.
Style, memory, and delivery. These canons are demonstrated to be important principles in the changing progression of rhetoric. Since ancient times memory has become more external - as in written and stored instead of the strict mental memorization mastered by ancient rhetors.
I was happy to read about he section devoted to "Correctness: Traditional Grammar and Usage" where defined are the ever-changing do's ad don't of what is 'proper' English grammar, and why the rules of grammar and correctness should be allowed to change and grow with the languages developments themselves as well.

ARCS CH10; RT enlightenment

After writing my essay, and reading these readings, I have come to recognize more of the importance that the 5 canons have, especially style. I wrote in my Essay 2, that style is important in written rhetoric to relate your audience and build your own distinct voice. Style becomes important to pay attention to and requires a concise knowledge of the voice you want to portray. I have always found this difficult, if my voice is the only one I have ever written in, how can I identify the parts that make it distinct? Here is where invention can take on a new role, and be important for analyzing and distinguishing between what makes my writing and my voice different from others'. Creating a voice contributes to style - which has a heightened importance in written rhetoric because of the variety of interpretations that an audience makes.
This reading emphasizes the importance of style. Style helps to clothe ideas - dressed up or dressed down - for the occasion and audience where it will be presented. it includes things like sentence structure and length, word choice, and writer's voice. The downside to style in writing is the difference that different readers interpret it. the best way to have strong style is to be aware and strong in your voice - something that experienced rhetors learn to get better at.

Essay 2, Revolution of Rhetoric

Alayna Wagers

Eng 360

Essay 2

11/4/12

Revolution of Rhetoric

Rhetoric's many facets, are changed and manipulated by the way they are delivered; particularly when a written argument versus one recited orally. Writing influences an audience in different ways than oral reception does – these changes in the perception of the argument received are necessary to acknowledge in order to develop the best argument in each form possible. The effect of written rhetoric on an audience must be understood in order for the author to effectively deliver his/her message. What are the changes in the effect that oral vs written rhetoric have? The five canons of rhetoric; invention, arrangement, style, memory, and delivery – must be looked at differently when used in these two, seemingly similar, ways.

Lets take a step back and look into history, as we have examined through this course, rhetoric began and grew in it's original oral form with ancient rhetors around. Classical rhetors like Aristotle, Cicero, Plato, Isocrates – all delivered their arguments orally. Memorization and delivery, the last two canons, were especially necessary in this time, and accepted without question. This analysis of a subject required an in depth and practiced knowledge in order to speak intelligently on the topic. Ancient rhetors were required to research thoroughly and seek all available avenues of solution in their problems. In oral rhetoric, orators acquired skills that we today may find extremely difficult (due to the change in spatial to linear thinking). Written rhetoric brought liberty to new rhetoricians that ancient oral rhetors had no advantage of – somewhat of a written memory. Literacy brought a new meaning to rhetoric, and it has completely changed the way rhetors write and deliberate today. With the addition of written language, came the ability to write ideas down, saving them. Not only that, but the invention of the printing press in 1450 revolutionized communication and consequently rhetoric. Major changes happen with these two technologies; I am referring to writing, and then the productivity and expansion brought by the printing press as two distinct technologies, each affecting and changing rhetoric for rhetors and their audiences.

Writing as a technology allowed authors to remember their ideas without the need for constant memorization – and allowed for revisions and editing that would make organizing and arrangement an entirely new animal. Authors gained the ability to cut and paste, to rearrange and develop arrangement further than possible before – or at least much easier. Authorship also brought new changes associated with ethos, and the character represented in their writing. With writing, rhetors become invisible once the text is printed, and read at another time – other than any wide reputations they may have. The audience cannot see for themselves who is speaking, and what ethical credibility they carry, instead the author has to be sure to present this throughout their writing, and be explicit in the character they carry in order to develop the best face to win their audience. This brings up the importance of the fifth canon, delivery. Delivery in oral rhetoric was completely up to the original author. When it comes to delivery through writing, or print, the audience wields more power in the interpretation. Authors who write their arguments must pay extra attention to their style, and punctuation in their writing. New writing rhetors had the challenge of educating a reader on themselves. Sentence length and structure take on new responsibility in delivering a message to the reader – or new interpreting orator. Subtly disguised in style authors, now allowed by the new role of arrangement, would change rhetoric in their attempts to write it down. Style becomes important in written rhetoric, and although it was important before for oral rhetors, style deserves special attention from writers. When giving a speech orally, the way it is delivered and the style chosen is easy to deliver, since it is from the orator and author themselves. When writing, an author must pay special attention to the word choice used, and the style presented and ensure that others reading the work will hear the author's voice. This is important in the establishment of ethos and voice in writing.

The latter technology, the printing press, revolutionized rhetoric and its world as well through the availability and expanse of print. Not only can more people read a written piece of work, but the phenomenon of print, welcomed commerce, and changed how rhetoric was written. Elizabeth's Eisenstein's writing, “The Printing Press as an Agent of Change”, described in depth the change in print, and how the ability for people to store their knowledge (in writing) allowed for them to accumulate it over centuries and generations of people in a way that had never been equalled before. Although we have learned that oral societies relied on their strong memories and methods like storytelling to acquire and retain their knowledge, written technology and print itself let people build a database, that more than the owner could access. In this way rhetoricians and writers, did not have to investigate every topic they wished to speak about themselves, or have an intimate first hand knowledge of many topics, they could read of others' without having to know the owner of the experience. Authors could now contribute to a collective knowledge. Rhetoric would be changed in the way rhetors approach invention. Compared to oral society, literate society allows for individual research with no need for collective experience as a necessity for a knowledge base. Due to the invention of print, writing could travel farther and expand to entirely new audiences. This changed the way that rhetor's needed to approach their audience. Oral rhetors saw their audience, spoke directly to them, and lived in their commonplaces. New foreign audiences present a new challenge to writers, who must think outside the box much like invention, and image their audience and all of their possibilities. Audiences are wider with print, and one could argue more knowledgeable as well due to the invention of print. When rhetorically arguing to these new audiences, listeners value an in depth knowledge, one they cannot easily learn themselves. This makes research necessary for writers, as discussed before, since so much more information is available to everyone, audiences want unique genuine insight and information.

As I have discussed, rhetoric has undergone many changes due to the revolution of writing and print as new technologies. The development of humankind as we are rests on the transition from oral to written rhetoric, and has resulted in new meanings for the canons of rhetoric, specifically for invention, arrangement, memorization and delivery. Ancient rhetors, while relevant to rhetorical principles, dealt with a different form of rhetoric than the one we deal with today. Today rhetoricians publish to a widespread audience, one much larger than that of ancient Athens. The invention of the printing press and writing itself, transformed oral society from communities reliant on strong memories, to humankind with the ability to build knowledge, and share it for everyone to build off of – not just the original author.

Works Cited

Duffy, Shannon E. "H-Net Reviews." H-Net Reviews. N.p., n.d. Web. 04 Nov. 2014.